This is a chapter of a paper which is proposed as a model for the Theory of Everything. For examining the principles, readers are either referred to look at the articled titled, "Singularity as Seperate Entity", in this library or to browse the whole paper at www.universaltheory.org.

This article suggeste a source for dark energy or dark matter.

The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( WMAP ) the newest probe launched by NASA in 2002 has determined, within the limits of instrument error, that the universe is flat.

Flatness Problem

What does geometry of universe mean?

Shape of our universe has been a matter of debate for long-time. The main possibilities were the universe being spherical, flat or saddle like. ⁽³¹⁾

In 1917 Einstein introduced the cosmological constant in order to explain how our universe is not falling into itself because of gravity and stays static. Without such a constant, gravity forces the universe to collapse. This cosmological constant would act against the gravity and stabilize the universe. According to its value the constant would allow for an expanding, contracting or static universe. It also proved necessary in mathematical calculations. Of course he chose a particular value for it, which would permit a static universe. The nature of this constant was not known or explained completely at the time.

This is an explanation for the origin of the cosmologic constant effect released by NASA recently

"The results of the WMAP mission and observations of distant supernova have suggested that the expansion of the universe is actually accelerating which implies the existence of a form of matter with a strong negative pressure, such as the cosmological constant. This strange form of matter is also sometimes referred to as the "dark energy". If dark energy in fact plays a significant role in the evolution of the universe, then in all likelihood the universe will continue to expand forever." ⁽³¹⁾

When in 1929 Hubble's observation showed that universe is expanding and is not static, Einstein himself regarded the cosmological constant unnecessary, and everybody accepted a zero value for it and accepted it as a non- contributory factor.

The introduction of Big Bang theory introduced the force, which is responsible for expansion of universe despite the presence of the gravity. Although it was supposed that gravity will slow down and stop the expansion sometime in the future. That is, if the density of matter in the universe exceeds the critical density.

Critical density is that density of matter which if we exceed it, the gravity has the strength to contract the universe, if cosmological constant is zero. At critical density the shape of universe will be flat. Above critical density the shape of it will be convex and spherical. If the matter density fell bellow critical density the shape of universe will be concave and it will expand forever.

We already know that space is nearly flat. That means that Omega M (world density/critical density) has to be 1. That is, if cosmological constant is zero.

In January 1998 Alex Pilippenko in Astrophysist Conference in Southern California announced that cosmological constant could no longer be taken as zero. Different cosmologists reached to this point after long-term observation of supernovae IA in longer red shifts (far distances more than 3 billion light years away)

Supernovae research has been used to measure the amount of red shift and expansion rate of the universe.What does it mean?

For one, to have a flat universe we need to have

W M + W Lambda (The effect of cosmological constant in the expanding universe) = 1

On the other hand it gives us the good news that big crunch will never happen, because the universe is going to expand forever. Then there comes this feeling of emptiness and the chilling sensation that our descendants will stay lonely in an infinitely vast and cold universe. One may say that, our own galaxy or branch of galaxies, which remain as closed system, has lots of new places to explore. Why do we have to be so ambitious and greedy to dream about intergalactic traveling?

Is there an end to human race greed?

Is there an end to evolution's ambition?

Are we a dead end branch of evolution?

Is there an alternative for cold and disperse universe in the future?

Dark energy

Non-zero cosmological constant also means that dark energy permeates from every cubic centimeter of space as universe expands. Can there be any other explanation for it? According to Donald Goldsmith, no. "Unless we are prepared to reject the tenets of general relativity theory, the only additional term that may appear to produce an acceleration consists of ... a cosmological constant of unknown size, but one with the properties we have described _namely, a transparent energy, untappable and untouchable, so far as we can tell, except by its tendency to make the universe expand more rapidly." 29p93.

Where does this energy come from? Doesn't nonzero cosmological constant require infinite source of energy readily available in every miniscule of space? Whatever happened to conservation of energy law?

Conservation of energy (the first law of thermodynamics) is one of several conservation laws. It states that the total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system. In other words, energy can be converted from one form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed. ⁽³³⁾

While some physicist try to disprove the presence of dark energy by suggesting modified gravity as proposed by Damien Easson or even dark geometry as speculated by by Gu-Je-An presented in Cosmo 4 in Toronto, others try to demystify its source and nature.In this proposed model the so called dark energy is inherently built in the model and its source is explained.

Arthur Eddington once said someone points out to you that your pet theory of the universe is in disagreement with Maxwell's equations, then so much the worse for Maxwell's equations. And if your theory contradicts the facts, well, sometimes these experimentalists make mistakes. But if your theory is found to be against the Second Law of Thermodynamics, I can give you no hope; there is nothing for it but to collapse in deepest humiliation"

According to him we have to introduce a source for dark energy. In this model space-time is a dissipative structure which extracts the dark energy from singularity.

Moreover in line with E = mc² this energy upon changing to matter, has also the potential to contributes to curvature of space. Mind you that it also can be a source of kind of matter being referred to as dark matter. This matter can condense and contribute to new star formation in a nebulae

If we have constant energy penetration and matter formation in the universe, the future of world may not be as disappointing after all.

So far supernovae observation revealed that;

W M + W Lambda = approximately to one

W Lambda - W M = approximately 0.4

The above figure are obtained by different methods like Supernova Observation, Cosmic Background Radiation studies, Gravitational Lensing and so on. Although the above figures are not firm yet and are still under investigation, but they are the cosmologist's best guess.

According to big bang theory, at the beginning the matter density was much higher and cosmological constant was much smaller. Gradually matter got less dense and cosmological constant increased. We are at the point where Omega M and Omega Lambda are almost equal. This creates a puzzling issue. Out of all the possible combination why should we live in such a period? This is what Robert Kirshner called Nancy Kerrigan problem referring to famous figure skater after the attack instigated by skating rival

"Why me? Why now?"

We can either hang on to philosophical answers like weak or strong anthropic principles, such as; human only can live in this period. In any other periods the conditions were not suitable for a human to be alive and ask these questions.Or explore the possibility that a stable relation between matter density and cosmological constant effect has existed from the beginning to date and will continue in the future.

This can happen if energy has been steadily penetrating inside empty space.

The Hubble Deep Field photograph taken in 1996 by the Hubble Space Telescope shows the most distant view known. It was expected to show the birth of galaxies, but instead shows galaxies looking remarkably like present day ones, perhaps there is life in the steady state yet. (32) Narlikar, Hoyle, Barbidge and some other astrophysicist introduced the Quasi Steady state theory to offer solutions for energy and matter creation through many small big bang events, which has been happening throughout the age of universe.

The amount required to preserve the steady state is undetectably small -- about a few atoms for every cubic mile each year or roughly a few hundred atoms of hydrogen in the Milky Way Galaxy each year. The required dark energy to maintain the present expansion of universe also is very small.

May we need a combination of modified steady state and big bang scenario? But trying to deny the acceleration of universe expansion by steady state theorists proves to be a very difficult task. Acceleration has been shown by different methods and recently by WMAP observations. May be they have to modify their views to accommodate the new observations. Even if it means radical and fundamental change.

Now, comes the question, why energy permeates in intergalactic space and not inside the galaxies? Observations indicate that galaxies are closed systems and expansion is not happening inside them. A speculative answer can be the permeation of energy will follow a sort of exclusion principle. For the process to happen may be the density of matter in a large surrounding space has to be below a threshold. Densities of matter above that threshold would not allow for energy penetration inside space-time.

"Creation of matter is governed by a conservation law which operates to prevent space-time singularities, which otherwise occur in general relativity. ... Unless creation of matter is included in physical laws, the laws lack universality." ⁽³⁴⁾

References

29 - The Runaway Universe, Donald Goldsmith, Perseus Books, 2000, ISBN 0-7382-0068-9

31 - http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni/uni_101shape.html

32 - http://www.schoolsobservatory.org.uk/study/sci/cosmo/internal/steady.htm

33 - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_energy

34 - http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/8098/Hoyle.htm

39 - http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/2004/12/

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