Gravitational Repulsion

In the APM, the neutron quantifies as a bound electron and proton, resulting in a neutral electrostatic charge.^[i] Nevertheless, when the neutron decays, we see that the electron and proton retained their electrostatic charges. Similarly, the angular momentum of the photon defines as the mass of an electron equally divided between the electron and proton spin positions within the Aether unit.^[ii] In the APM, the photon quantifies as the total angular momentum times the speed of light.

                   6.1

Since the photon has the total mass equal to one electron, but the mass divides equally as matter and antimatter, the masses nullify each other gravitationally, therefore giving the appearance of a massless photon. Nevertheless, when an atom absorbs photons, the angular momenta of the photons can combine and produce individual electrons and positrons with net mass. These phenomena are recognized as the photoelectric effect, Compton effect, and pair production.

A device exists, which demonstrates how absorbed photons can emit electrons and positrons. We call the device a Crooke's radiometer. As photons are absorbed, electrons emit from the dark side of the vane and positrons release from the reflective side of the vane. Charge does not accumulate in the bulb due to the annihilation of matter and antimatter. Before the matter and antimatter annihilate, the emitted electrons and positrons impart force to the vanes. The annihilation of the electron and positron creates more photons. Some of the resulting photons return to the vanes to repeat the process. The standard explanation of the heated molecules does not substantiate with an increase in bulb temperature. Rapid heating and cooling of the air molecules adjacent to the vanes is implausible as an explanation for the rapid rotation achieved with bright sunlight.

Thus, the relationship of the photon acting on the surface of the vanes is equal to:

                   6.2

In equation 6.2, phtn and forc are quantum measurements units as defined by the Aether Physics Model. The unit of a true quantum photon is phtn and quantum measurement unit of force is forc. The unit of forc is equal to .034 newton.

The APM includes a complete new system of quantum measurement units. All of the quantum measurement units are expressed as a four letter abbreviation, except where quantum measurement units are already defined (h is the quantum measurement unit of angular momentum, and c is the quantum measurement unit of velocity).

Charges, Electromagnetic and Electrostatic Charges

As indicated in the definition of quantum charge, there are two distinct manifestations of charge. The SM empirical elementary charge defines the APM quantum of electrostatic charge.

The electromagnetic charge, also called the strong charge, as it mediates the strong force, is derived from the angular momentum of the subatomic particle times the conductance of the Aether. Based upon the quantum measurement analysis that the quantum of action of the electron, Planck's constant, is equal to:

                   7.1

let us define the angular momenta of all the subatomic particles according to equations 5.11 through 5.13.

As equations 5.4 and 5.10 show, the structure of the Aether unit in terms of Coulomb's electrostatic constant, hypothesizes to construct from the speed of light, Aether conductance, Aether permeability, and Aether permittivity. We have assumed that equality 5.9 represents the conductance constant of the Aether.

Therefore, we can quantify electromagnetic charge as being equal to the angular momentum of the subatomic particle times the conductance constant of the Aether. Each subatomic particle then has a unique, but constant electromagnetic charge, which is directly proportional to the mass of the subatomic particle.

Matter

Quantification

Because mass is linear, it exists with just one dimension of length when associated with matter. Matter at the subatomic level exists as primary angular momentum. Primary angular momentum is equal to a circular line of mass (ligamen circulatus) spinning a velocity perpendicular to the circle. The angular momentum of the electron is the "quantum of action" also known as Planck's constant.^[iii]

                   8.1

Since Planck's constant is the quantum of action, it is directly quantifying the electron. Planck's constant is the electron. Since the facts surrounding Planck's constant are clear, we should not arbitrarily dictate that subatomic particles could not be a unit of primary angular momentum.

Similar structures hold for the proton and neutron.Again, the mass of the subatomic particle is not separable from its angular momentum. Thus when the mass of a subatomic particle is given, we can assume its angular momentum, and likewise, when the angular momentum is given, we can assume its mass.

The electron, being a circle of mass moving a velocity, fits inside the Aether electron spin position.Angular momentum has the same construction for each subatomic particle, each filling a unique spin position. The concept of subatomic particles is somewhat different in the APM than in the SM and so, at the suggestion of Henry Margenau, we name them onn (onta for plural).^[iv]

Dark Matter

Dark matter views as primary angular momentum, which exists outside the charge structure of the quantum Aether unit. Empirically, there is a vast sea of dark matter that does not interact with visible matter, except gravitationally. This is because primary angular momentum does not have inherent strong charge or electrostatic charge. The Aether unit imparts these two charge characteristics when primary angular momentum is absorbed.

Dark matter is absorbed into the Aether by the generation of photons via the Casimir effect.^[v] The equation for calculating the attractive Casimir force between two plates of area A separated by a distance L is shown below. We choose the length and area to be the quantum distance for quantum measurement analysis purposes.

                   8.2

The Dutch physicist Hendrick Casimir developed the form of equation 8.2 in 1948. In 1996, Steven Lamoreaux conducted an experiment that verified the Casimir effect equation to within 5%.^[vi]

Looking at equation 8.2, we see in the numerator. In the Aether Physics Model, is equal to the unit of the quantum photon.  Let us modify the equation by replacing with the phtn unit and express the force in units of forcfrom the APM.

                   8.3

Because we chose the quantum distance for L and the quantum distance squared for A, the numerical terms produce an identity.

                   8.4

The numerical Ï€ divided by 480 is too close to 1/16Ï€² (6.333 x 10^-3) to ignore. Could it be that the Casimir equation was calculated or inferred incorrectly? Perhaps it should be:

                   8.5

A comparison of the numerical term in the original Casimir equation to the assumed 16Ï€² numerical term gives:

                   8.6

The Casimir value is just 3.3% greater than the 16Ï€² value. In 1996 Steven Lamoreaux empirically measured the Casimir Effect to within 5% of the Casimir equation. Therefore, the assumed 16Ï€² value could be correct. Of further interest is that phtn/16Ï€² is equal to the strong charge of the electron times Coulomb's constant.

                   8.7

We see the so-called "virtual photons" created through the Casimir effect to be the result of the strong charge of the electron acted upon by the strong force.  So the Casimir equation can transpose as:

                   8.8

Therefore, it appears that the Casimir effectis the result of the electron strong charge of the atoms in the metal plates affecting each other through a form of Coulomb's law. However, Lamoreaux clearly states in his paper, "There was no evidence for a force in any of the data..."⁴⁴ Nevertheless, even though the force is not an inverse square force, it does increase rapidly with the closer distances, as he writes, "The Casimir force is nonlinear and increases rapidly at distances less than 0.5 μm." This is entirely consistent with the strong force law as it increases according to the inverse square law, but at a rate 16Ï€² times sharper than the electrostatic force.

Taking the area and lengths to be the quantum length, the adjusted Casimir equation transposes and simplifies as the APM strong force equation for the electron:

                   8.9

Therefore, the success of the Casimir effect experiments is evidence of the existence of the strong charge of the electron, as well as the electron strong force law. It also provides evidence to support the assertion that the photon is equal to the angular momentum of the electron times the speed of light.